Welcome to The Historical Times, a blog dedicated to telling the story of events and people that have occurred overtime.

"...if you don't know history, then you don't know anything. You are a leaf that doesn't know it is part of a tree"
- Michael Crichton


Monday, 2 February 2015

Japanese History: How Significant Was Minamoto no Yoshitsune?

Minamoto no Yoshitsune is one of the most renowned characters in Japanese history[1] and is celebrated both within and outside of Japan as one of the greatest military generals of all time. He was the military commander of the Minamoto clan during the Genpei War against their rivals, the Taira clan, from 1180 to 1184. After being betrayed by his older brother Yoritomo (the political head of the clan) Yoshitsune attempted a coup, eventually committing seppuku (ritual suicide) after his final defeat at the battle of the Koromo River1. He was well known in Japan at the time as a skilled swordsman as well as a master tactician and is revered today as a tragic hero. In my research I have focussed on military, political and social evidence, both historically and contemporarily. The most reliable source of evidence is the Azuma Kagami, a document written by officials of the Kamakura Bakufu, the government established by Yoshitsune's brother Yoritomo. This therefore contains obvious bias in places so I have cross referenced with the Heike Monogatari, an epic poem regarded as one of the greatest pieces of world literature of all time, written in 1371 and detailing an exaggerated account of the events leading up to and throughout the Genpei War. In an attempt to keep this study from becoming filled with too much unsubstantiated exaggeration, I have not used any information regarding his life before the reunion with Yoritomo (which is mostly myth containing the divine intervention of bird deities) within my study of his contemporary significance, instead choosing to stick with the Azuma Kagami, the work of historians, and the Heike Monogatari only when it runs parallel to the Azuma Kagami.

In terms of Yoshitsune’s military significance, I will start with the legendary assault on the fortress of Ichi-no-Tani, where he led a small force in a charge down the side of a ravine in a scene that is described by the Heike Monogatari to ‘seem all but superhuman - something for gods or demons, not men.[2]’ In this particular engagement we can see how he was military significant as he had an understanding of military tactics that his predecessors and even successors did not. He divided his forces into a large attacking force which was essentially a diversion whilst he personally rode through the mountains ‘with the seventy-odd particularly brave warriors he had selected and set aside from the rest’[3] to find a route into the inner fort from above. This quote shows Yoshitsune as unique within Japan as a leader who knew his men on a personal level, which was strictly taboo in the rigid, feudal society at the time (although we must remember that an epic poem such as this is likely to contain exaggeration). This trait is shown time and time again, but is particularly prevalent within this scene as he even goes as far as to ask his own men for suggestions as to how to find their way through the mountains.[4] This informal nature when addressing his men is undoubtedly something which would have given him an advantage on the battlefield. His respect and knowledge of his soldiers is perhaps most famously shown at the battle of Yashima where Yoshitsune hand selected the young archer Nasu no Yoichi who successfully shot down a fan atop a Taira ship, placed as a test of the fighting skill of the Minamoto clan (in medieval Japan skill with a bow was given greater value than swordsmanship).[5] Just prior to this scene he misled the Taira forces by lighting campfires to the rear of their camp, fooling them into expecting a land based attack so that the Taira would take to
their ships only to be ambushed by naval forces led by Yoshitsune’s brother Noriyori.

Militarily then, I would argue that Yoshitsune was very significant as a general within the Genpei War as he led the armies of his brother to victory again and again and never once suffered a defeat. His intelligent tactics outsmarted his opponents and brought a complete turnaround to the state of the war, defeating both his rival cousin Yoshinaka and the experienced generals of the Taira. Yoshitsune's arrival and successful command of the Minamoto makes him a key turning point in the war, leaving much for story tellers to admire and exaggerate.

Politically then, what role did Yoshitsune play during his life?  In regards to personal political influence at the time, Yoshitsune is terribly underappreciated. Of course his actions on the field of battle led to many political changes, but since many of these occurred after his death I shall tackle these in the historical significance section later on. It seems to me that the colourful accomplishments on the battlefield as well as the legends fabricated after his death surrounding his early life have led to his political skill being overlooked. During the reign of the Kamakura Bakufu (the government established after the Minamoto victory) samurai held the power politically whilst the imperial court held the symbolic power.[6] Yoshitsune would have therefore had plenty of political standing. He held favour with the retired emperor Go-Shirakawa (or Shirakawa the second) whose son was responsible for starting the war against the Taira in the first place. Shirakawa, a popular figure in Japan at the time, issued Yoshitsune with the title of Hōgan as well as giving him governorship of Iyo, a territory in the south of Japan, as personal thanks for his victories against the Taira. This shows that Yoshitsune was politically significant because his military feats won him favour with the imperial court (favour which Yoritomo came to envy).[7]

He certainly held favour within the imperial court then which would have granted him political power on its own, however Yoshitsune was not afraid to use his skills in oratory to get his way when he needed it. One example of this would be the meeting with the imperial court in Kyoto after the battle of Ichi-no-Tani, where he managed to convince Shirakawa to let him parade the heads of the dead Taira generals through the streets of the capital, even after the imperial advisors had warned him against it. He used both political and personal arguments, reminding the court that the deceased were no longer servants of the state but ‘the emperor's foes’ and that unless the march with the heads was allowed, 'what warning hereafter will there be to deter evildoers?'[8] This proved to be very strong leverage. He demonstrated this political skill again when he asked for imperial permission to lead a rebellion against his brother Yoritomo. Yoshitsune cleverly issued a heartfelt application to the imperial court explaining how Yoritomo has ‘never thought of rewarding me but even stripped me of all the lands he (Shirakawa) had happened to allot to me.’ Craftier still, he issued this application at a time when Yoshitsune was the only man in the city legally qualified to lead the police force, leaving the imperial court to question ‘if he didn’t receive imperial permission and resorted to violence, who did they have to order for their defence?’[9]

These two scenarios show how Yoshitsune could use political skill to get his way and how he was politically significant at the time, using his talents in speaking to ensure that he got his way within the courtroom. Such skill would no doubt have been useful for a general and certainly adds colour to the man that was Yoshitsune.

To measure Yoshitsune’s social impact I used two major items that showed that people in Japan looked up to him and spoke about his achievements. The first is a description of his funeral from the Azuma Kagami where his head was ‘placed in a tub, immersed in sake, and carried on the shoulders of two men’ and ‘all those who watched this are said to have wiped their tears, soaking their sleeves.[10]’ This dramatic and heartfelt display, especially considering that it is the words of Yoritomo's officials, shows how significant Yoshitsune was socially as the people of Japan literally wept for the loss of their magnificent general. There is also the diary entry of Kujo Kanezane, friend of Yoritomo and witness to the changes in Japanese society as a result of the Genpei War, which describes him hearing the news that Yoshitsune had been defeated: ‘Yoshitsune has left great achievements; about this there is nothing to argue. In bravery, benevolence, and justice, he is bound to leave a great name to posterity. In this he can only be admired and praised.[11]’ Notice that even here, Kujo, a personal friend of the man who Yoshitsune rose up against, praises his personal qualities as much as his military feats, showing that socially, he was well respected and admired by the people of Japan.

In summary of his contemporary significance then, I believe that Yoshitsune certainly played a role as a general as his tactics were strong enough to defeat the experienced generals that his brother repeatedly pit him against. I believe also that his political skill has been downplayed in favour of the more ‘interesting’ achievements on the battlefield and that his social impact must have been truly great as even the close friend of his enemy was apparently willing to accept that some of his personal traits were unmatched within Japan. All of these factors show that he was contemporarily significant at first glance but since very few reliable evidence exists we must remember that much of his 'history' is exaggeration. Although he may well have been significant contemporarily as a military turning point, I believe it is over time that his significance really starts to grow.

Since his death Yoshitsune has become the “most famous man in all of premodern Japanese history.”[12] The vast expanses of grey areas within his life’s story (consider that his life is only accurately recorded for five years) as well as the romantic exaggeration of certain feats by the Heike Monogatari has left story tellers plenty of room to play with, and over the years legends have been created and spread to the point now where it is difficult to remember what events within his life are historical fact and which are the work of overzealous raconteurs.

Yoshitsune affected the lives of many during his life, few more so than those within the imperial court. His actions eventually led to the destruction of the imperial court as a political force within Japan as the victory that he ensured in the Genpei War led to the rise of his brother Yoritomo who went on to replace the Insei system with his military shogunate.[13] This was a momentous turning point in Japanese history as it was the moment when power was moved from the hands of the imperial court to the samurai caste (ironic then that the disestablishment of the Insei system by the Taira was the spark that led to war in the first place and that the Minamoto fought at first with the aim of restoring imperial power). The shogunate thenceforth became the staple system of government, repressing and resisting rebellion in one way or another until the Meiji restoration in 1868. This is significant as it shows that Yoshitsune was involved in the establishment of the longest running system of government in Japanese history. Yoshitsune could also be argued to be indirectly responsible for the loss of the imperial court's symbolic power as at the battle of Dan-no-ura the imperial sword, one of the three pieces of the imperial regalia which gave the imperial courts their divine right to rule, was lost to the sea.[14]

The shogunate was perhaps most importantly in power during the attempted Mongol invasions of Kublai Khan which were famously defeated in 1274 and 1281. These battles marked the first time that Japanese soldiers had fought for their country rather than their clan's interests and the successful defence led to the Japanese coining the concept of 'kamikaze' or divine wind, declaring Japan a divinely protected nation. This gave the Japanese a reason to stand together as a nation for the first time and is an event looked back on by the Japanese with pride. Without Yoshitsune's military success, Yoritomo would arguably never have come to power, leading one to question how effective a Taira defence of Japan would have been against the Mongols.[15]

So Yoshitsune has remained significant politically throughout history. Does his social significance compare? I would argue that Yoshitsune's social impact is where his story gets most interesting as the tales of his exploits are well established pieces of Japanese culture. Richard McKinnon asks, “who [within Japan] has not heard of his spectacular feats at Mount Kurama or the Gojo bridge?”[16] At Mount Kurama he is said to have been trained by the Tengu (mythical bird men with demonic swordsmanship skills) to such a level of skill to be able to cut leaves as they fell from a tree. The fact that this story even exists shows that he is socially significant as many within Japan know the tale and some would even consider it history. On top of this the tale is so well known that it is referenced within Japanese and popular culture, showing how truly embedded these tales are within the heritage of Japan. In the manga series “One Piece” for instance (the world's best selling manga), one of the characters is shown to be able to catch a leaf on his sword. This scene is a specific reference to the Yoshitsune story and would have resonated as such amongst Japanese readers. I would go as far as to say that Yoshitsune is today the equivalent of Robin Hood in the English speaking world with tales of his adventures with his loyal companion Benkei told as bedtime stories[17] and used in video games such as Minamoto: Dawn of the Samurai where the player plays as Yoshitsune himself.

Stories of Yoshitsune also form a large part of the Ainu's culture. The indigenous Ainu people were present long before the Yamato race immigrated and they revere Yoshitsune as a deity, responsible for stealing their literature.[18] This rather fantastical fable exists to explain why the Ainu have no written work and is interesting as it is the first instance in which Yoshitsune became significant to a group of people outside of the Yamato Japanese.

His significance is not limited to medieval Japan and manga however, as he is even present in more mainstream media. An example of this is the NHK television drama 'Yoshitsune' which aired in 2005 and followed him from birth to death, blending legend with fact to produce an award winning action drama.[19] Over time his story has even evolved alongside the constantly changing Japanese media. A fantastic example of this evolution is the film: 'The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail,' released in 1952 and based on a kabuki play from 1840, which was itself based on a noh play from 1465, which tells of the escape of Yoshitsune from his brother's warriors while also showcasing traditional Japanese values. Interestingly enough, the film was finished in 1945 but was prohibited from release by General Douglas McArthur (who led the American occupation) for its portrayal of feudal values and was only released after the treaty of San Francisco. This I feel is evidence for the way in which Yoshitsune embodies the traditional Japanese morals and values that the Americans were trying to stomp out and could explain why he has maintained his status as a national hero since World War Two. It is also of note that he appears to have maintained his significance through many different stages of Japanese history, whether shogunate, autocracy or democracy.

Yoshitsune has become such a large part of the Japanese mindset that many in Japan even believe him to never have died but in fact to have successfully escaped to mainland Asia to become Genghis Khan.[20] I believe this idea (although almost completely unfounded) is key to understanding modern Japan as it is interesting to note that (at least until WW2), according to this theory, the only force that offered Japan any kind of threat was itself Japanese (although the Romanovs may have disagreed). This belief clearly showcases the unique brand of Japanese nationalism as the very idea that something with no solid evidence could still be treated by some as fact even today shows how strong the Japanese identity still is. Who better to have as the protagonist of this story than Yoshitsune, the quintessential Japanese hero?


In summary then, I believe that although much of Yoshitsune's life story is myth and that which is documented is mostly done so by an exaggerated poem, Yoshitsune is still a significant character. Even though I personally believe that he was significant contemporarily in the sense that he was a great military and political force, I could make the same case for his brother Yoritomo, without whom the shogunate would not have risen to power and Yoshitsune would never have even arrived on the political scene. It is over time that I believe Yoshitsune's significance has grown and it is today that it is at its height. Whether due to the extensive exaggeration by poems such as the Heike Monogatari or otherwise, Yoshitsune has been remembered. He has been remembered through shrines at the Shirahata Jinja in Kamakura or through statues at the Gojo Bridge and at Dan-no-ura, or even through cinema and television and manga and children's stories. However it is that Yoshitsune has been remembered, or whatever it even is about him that is being remembered, he has become an underlying constant in the Japanese mind and a major part of Japanese culture today, a culture which is everyday becoming a bigger player in the global culture which has started to grow in recent years. Simply consider the fact that I am even writing this essay as one more piece of evidence that Minamoto no Yoshitsune is a significant figure in world history.



[1] Stephen Turnbull - The Samurai Sourcebook - 60
[2] Royall Tyler - The Tale of the Heike - 495
[3] Hiroaki Sato - Legends of the Samurai - 29%
[4] Royall Tyler - The Tale of the Heike - 483-484
[5] Royall Tyler - The Tale of the Heike - 594-597
[6] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/300531/Japan/23142/Medieval-Japan#toc23144
[7] Hiroaki Sato - Legends of the Samurai - 31%
[8] Royall Tyler - The Tale of the Heike - 522
[9] Hiroaki Sato - Legends of the Samurai - 35%
[10] Hiroaki Sato - Legends of the Samurai - 38%
[11] Hiroaki Sato - Legends of the Samurai - 36%
[12] Helen McCullough - Yoshitsune: A Fifteenth Century Chronicle - Page 5
[13] Stephen Turnbull - The Samurai Sourcebook - 10
[14] Royall Tyler - The Tale of the Heike - 620-625
[15] Stephen Turnbull - The Samurai Sourcebook - 206
[16] Richard McKinnon - The Journal of Asiatic studies, Vol. 27 - 149-150
[17] Kazue Kyoichi - Minamoto no Yoshitsune no higeki - 1
[18] John Batchelor - The Ainu of Japan - 115-116
[19] 'Yoshitsune' won the 2005 Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix Award for Best Drama
[20] Richard Storry - A History of Modern Japan - 39

Monday, 26 January 2015

How significant was Leni Riefenstahl to Film Culture?


For years, film has been considered to be uniquely powerful and significant within human culture with its ability to inspire and capture the hearts of an audience; sometimes without uttering a word. Cinema was a powerful vehicle for culture, education and propaganda in Nazi Germany, with directors such as Leni Riefenstahl who created epic pictures such as
Triumph of the Will in order to, not only glorify Nazi ideology, but to win the hearts and minds of the German public. This alone shows her to be significant to film culture as she was able to indoctrinate her audiences through her extensive use of modern film techniques; most of which were new to the time period. However, her significance to film culture could arguably be flawed as her “valuable” contribution to the industry was only ever through her association with the Nazi’s thus indicating that she was only known for being the controversial Nazi filmmaker rather than her talent for film making.

Historian Rainer Rother stated that her “career provides of her determination”[1]. This is enforced by the lengths she went to achieve her aims; thus allowed her to become an iconic figure within film culture. Her first propaganda documentary- film, Triumph of the Will (1935), shows Riefenstahl’s significance within the Nazi Film industry as she was able to create a masterpiece which demonstrated strength and unity of the nation. This therefore connotes her significance to the film industry as it demonstrates her ability to create a piece of art which would continue to be recognized as an epic, innovative work of propaganda filmmaking across time. The success of Triumph suggests that Leni Riefenstahl was significant to film culture as it was this film and her determination to prove her role in a male dominated industry which made Riefenstahl the first female film director to achieve international recognition across Europe and the USA for her work which allowed her to become a burgeoning influence as well as a “symbolic figure for national socialism and... one for post war society”[2].

 Her gender also allowed Leni Riefenstahl to become a significant figurehead in film culture as she managed to work her way through the vast criticism of jealous men and received positive reviews for her films across the globe. This shows her significance within Film Culture as was able to prove herself in a male dominated world and industry in a time when women in Germany were expected to conform to the stereotype of a wife and mother.

More significantly however, in 1974, 40 years after Triumph, Riefenstahl was invited to the Telluride Film Festival in Colorado where she was “celebrated as a model for women in the film industry”[3]. The evidence supports the idea that she was in fact significant to the film industry as she was celebrated for achievements in film as well as being an inspiration for other women in the industry. In addition to this, her presence at the festival sparked worldwide protests, especially in Germany where they fiercely opposed America’s Riefenstahl revival. Despite the protests, her films were shown any, arguing that they were “honouring her as an artist not as a person”[4]. This further supports the argument that Riefenstahl was significant to the film industry as she was celebrated as an artist who created spectacular films rather than as the “Nazi filmmaker”. Although, while it could be suggested that her career wasn’t only built around her association with the Nazi’s, it is worth considering that her most famous works wouldn’t have been produced nor have the outstanding recognition and praised they have received  across time thus indicating that her significance to film culture across time is much lower than it first appears.

Leni Riefenstahl proves herself to be significant to film culture as it was Triumph which influenced various other nations to create anti Nazi propaganda such as Britain’s The Curse of the Swastika. This shows her significance to the film industry as, through the stylised imagery within Triumph which glorified Nazism, she was able to inflict fear into the heart of an elite superpower which in turn caused them to distribute anti Nazi propaganda. However, film historian David Thompson argued that Triumph was Riefenstahl simply “setting out to make a picture in... [a] more American style.” [5] which illustrates that Leni Riefenstahl was mimicking American style cinema in order to make her own work seem revolutionary within Nazi Germany; a country in which foreign film was strictly regulated in order to obtain control. The source therefore shows that she wasn’t the innovative director history has been made out to be and clearly indicates that claims of Riefenstahl significance to film culture across time have been highly exaggerated. This is further enforced by a quote from Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, who stated that he was “Infuriated by the dismal quality of Nazi Cinema”[6]. The source strengthens the argument as it indicates that Riefenstahl’s contribution to film culture wasn’t as significant as historians have previously made her out to be. However, this source is likely to be biased as Goebbels and Riefenstahl were reported to be bitter enemies who were constantly battling for the Fuhrer’s attention. Therefore, this source is arguably unreliable.

Riefenstahl was often regarded to have an “impressive demon of strength”[7] by the way she overcame her battles against male colleagues and rivals and Olympia is clear evidence of this. Her documentary of the 1936 Olympics, Olympia, was praised as a successful film, which has since been widely recognised for its technical and visual achievements. It was this film which above all connotes her significance to the film industry as it was a turning point for Riefenstahl’s career due to the fact her film was highly praised by critics across the world, winning various awards such as National Film Prize (1937–1938). In 1960, the film was voted as one of the 10 best films of all time and was again praised in 2002 by The Daily Telegraph, recognizing Olympia as “even more technically dazzling (if more stylised and less powerful) than Triumph of the Will.[8] The source clearly shows Leni Riefenstahl to be significant to film culture as she was praised revolutionising film as we know it. By using a range of modern filming techniques, such as tracking shots of athletes and her impressive editing approach, Leni Riefenstahl shows her significance to the film industry as she reshaped how an audience reacted to film and thus paved the way for a more modern film age. This is further supported by the source as it suggests that Leni Riefenstahl was celebrated for her achievements as a director rather than a Nazi filmmaker as Olympia wasn’t regarded as a propagandist film in contrast to its predecessor’s. However, it could be argued that the Daily Telegraph is a right wing news paper and is shown to view Leni Riefenstahl’s work in a much more positive light due to its political content. Consequently, this proves the source to be unreliable as they contain an element of biasness.

During the Cold War period, Riefenstahl’s underwent a public renaissance, from the popular image of a culprit of the Nazi regime eventually manifesting into the new image of an unwitting, apolitical director. This shows people’s perception of her significance to the industry changing overtime, from the nazi sympathiser who created propaganda films to glorify Nazism to the ground-breaking female director who created breath taking pieces of art. A key example of her highly regarded apolitical works was Olympia. Olympia was viewed as one of the “great achievements of cinematic history”[9] with only few people viewing it as propaganda. Nevertheless, the film continued to cause controversy well into the 1970’s. In the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics, Olympia was shown at the Munich cinema and was considered a popular success. However, vigorous protests prevented its viewing in Berlin. This suggests that Riefenstahl’s contribution to film culture was significant as she continued to be a burgeoning influence upon the German people as she was still able to provoke a reaction from her audiences, years after her films prior release. It is this provocative aspect of her films which allows her to be significant to the film industry as it was her ability to create a brilliant stylisation which further produced a “tremendous aesthetic and technical cinematic achievement”.[10] While the newspaper is known for celebrating independent culture and further enforces the argument that Leni Riefenstahl was a significant figure within film culture, it could be argued that due to its right winged political allegiances, it is likely to be in favour of her films due to their political content. The source is also a media outlet which offers its own mediation of specific events thus rendering the source unreliable and therefore lowering her significance.

It could be argued that Leni Riefenstahl was only ever famous for being a Nazi filmmaker and consequently not significant to film culture. Her works before the rise of the Nazis such as The Blue Light have not gained nearly as much attention as her propaganda films. While on one hand, it is undeniable that Triumph of the Will and Olympia are outstanding films, their purpose for brainwashing is quite clearly shown throughout history; signifying that Leni Riefenstahl was truly was significant to the film industry. On the other hand film historian, Rainer Rother stated that “the way they are crafted is more convincing than any other art produced under the Nazi regime and as on propaganda on its behalf”[11] which argues that Riefenstahl’s propaganda films were not considered shocking or revolutionary until years after the war. This therefore shows that her contribution to film culture was neither revolutionary nor worthy to mention as part of film history. In contrast to this, the source also indicates that Leni Riefenstahl’s films were in fact significant to film culture as they were a much higher quality of propaganda in contrast to the other forms of film produced by the government. While the source illustrates her significance to film culture, it also implies that Riefenstahl was only great for having been the Nazi film maker she has always denied she ever was and indicates that she her significance to the film industry was highly overrated.

In 1998 the German band Rammstein used Riefenstahl’s footage of Olympia for the song “stripped”. The reaction they received for using Olympia shows Riefenstahl’s significance to the film industry as her footage still had the ability to gain a reaction from audience’s years after its initial release as many saw it as glorification of Nazism rather than a “expression good art rather than an endorsement of Nazism”[12]. The band themselves enforce the idea of her significance as they considered her work as a seductive and artistic master piece rather than a film by a Nazi sympathiser which subverts the idea that she gained her reputation as a significant figure head to modern film through her involvement within the Nazi regime. However, in spite of this, Rammstein are known to be a highly controversial band that is known to do things in order to cause a reaction. While her worked sparked a reaction from the Anti-Defamation League, it could simply be due to her association with the Nazis rather than her talent as a filmmaker; implying that she isn’t as significant as she has been made out to be.

Her first documentary Victory of Faith (1933) was significant to film culture as it was one of the first modern forms of propaganda in Germany. Film Historians such as Edward Buscombe and Rob White have argued that “For Riefenstahl, Victory of Faith was a dress rehearsal for her biggest challenge yet”[13] which firmly rooted her as “the Nazi filmmaker” and established her significance to the film industry supporting the ideology that Victory was simply a rehearsal film for other Nazi rallies.  This idea is further enforced by the fact that after Victory, Hitler was hell bent on ending the distinction between reality and fiction; something which he and Riefenstahl achieved a year later in Triumph for which the entire rally was staged and scripted as well as the crowd being strictly controlled. In turn, this connotes Riefenstahl to be significant to film culture as it indicates that her talent as a film director was the catalyst for Nazi propaganda within Germany. Films such as Triumph and Tiefland shows Riefenstahl’s significance as they changed the way audiences experienced films and “would neither have caused a sensation at the time nor be considered classics today“[14]. This also conforms to the idea that Leni Riefenstahl’s films commonly associated with the Hypodermic Syringe Theory, which allowed the Nazi’s to control and manipulate audiences into their way of thinking. It was this method of control which caused Riefenstahl to become more significant to film culture in Germany as she, under the apparent orders of Hitler, was able to psychologically manipulate and control audiences into supporting the National Socialists but also unifying the nation.

David Thompson, a film historian argued that independent German cinema had a big influence on American film, stating that “German cultural tradition was more prepared to see identification [whereas] American cinema... catches fantasy appeal”.[15]  Thompson suggests that Leni Riefenstahl’s significance within Film Culture doesn’t solely lie within Germany, but that her work was influential across the world. However, while she clearly made a vast contribution to film culture, not only in Germany, but across the globe, she is considered an extremely controversial figure due to her association with the Nazi’s.  Despite this, Thompson fails to provide any other information about Leni Riefenstahl and her contribution to cinema. This connotes that Leni Riefenstahl her significance to film culture was highly exaggerated and thus showing that she is irrelevant. In contrast to this, Historian Rainer Rother, argues that “Riefenstahl was arguably the most famous women film director in the world” and therefore raises her significance to film culture as she still considered influential across the world years after her films initial release.

On one hand, Leni Riefenstahl is described as the “Valkyrie goddess of third Reich cinema”[16] which clearly indicates her significance within the film industry. This source could be problematic as it focuses mainly on her relationship with Hitler as opposed to her actual contribution to film. While it is argued that Riefenstahl was significant to film culture, she is shown to have “grown in popularity because of, not despite, the cliché of the Nazi film maker”[17]. As a result, this source lessens her significance as it implies that, had she refused to take part in creating propaganda for the Nazi’s, her contributions to the industry would not be as famous and as well known.  

Leni Riefenstahl is also shown to be significant to film culture as exhibits of her work were shown in a variety of cities across the globe such as Tokyo, Milan, Rome and Potsdam. This clearly connotes her significance to film culture as her work is still looked upon as notorious and influential years after its initial release. Her appearance in Time Magazine further connotes her significance to film culture as her appearance in one of America’s most powerful magazines indicates that she is still considered a powerful influence on film culture as we know. Furthermore, this indicates that Leni Riefenstahl was significant, not only to film culture within Germany, but also within the USA throughout time, proving that Riefenstahl is, in terms of popular culture of the 21st century, a cult artist and influential across time. Even in death, Leni Riefenstahl was celebrated as a talented filmmaker. A quote from The Daily Telegraph stated that she “was perhaps the most talented female cinema director of the 20th century”[18]. This shows that Riefenstahl continued to be a significant figure in modern film culture by the way she was celebrated for, not only her achievements, but also for the way she revolutionised technical and visual elements of film production.

While she is considered significant due to the way she modernised film and continued to provoke a reaction from audience’s years after their initial release, it could be argued that she is significant for tarnishing the film industry as a result of both the content of her films as well as her use of slave labour.  Records from Marzahn detention camp indicate that “Sinti and Roma...were compelled to work as extras[19] in her film Tiefland (1954) between 1940- 42. The source is taken from a survivor from the camp who worked on the set and is subsequently clear evidence that she is significant for tarnishing the film industry as she forced people to work against their will in order to complete her film. On closer inspection, it is worth considering that this evidence shows Riefenstahl not be as significant to the film industry as she would not have of been able to complete Tiefland if she had not been involved with the Nazi’s. This indicated that Riefenstahl is only famous for being the Nazi Filmmaker and that it was her films and her association with the regime which allowed her to establish her legend, thus only giving the illusion that she is significant to the film industry. It was later revealed that many of these workers were sent back to concentration camps where they were eventually killed. Consequently, this shows Riefenstahl to be significant to the film industry as her film tarnished its reputation as a form of escapism for people across the world. By using forced labour, she conformed to the Nazi stereotype with which she had been branded with for years after the war. However, it is this quality which allows her to further show her significance to the industry. Tiefland, while known for its horrific treatment of gypsies, has been argued by historians such as Robert von Dassanowsky that it has influenced of many Hollywood blockbusters, such as James Cameron’s Titanic through its similar narrative structure.[20] Had she have not been involved with the Nazi’s, she may not have gained the ‘additional help’ in time to create the film. As a result, this indicates Leni Riefenstahl to be significant to the film industry as her work became the influence for one of the biggest films in Hollywood.

In conclusion, Leni Riefenstahl was significant to the film industry during the period that she produced her films as she revolutionised modern techniques of filmmaking; changing the way we as an audience experience a film. However, she has also gained significance over and across time as her films are still considered technological masterpieces, continuing to provoke a reaction from their viewer’s years after their initial release. While taking this into consideration, many believe that she wasn’t the cinematic genius that her critics like to think she is and is therefore not significant to the film industry. Her association with the Nazis was her only claim to fame and the only reason she became so famous, had she have never filmed Nazi propaganda, I highly doubt she would have been as successful and admired over and across time.







[1] Leni Riefenstahl: Seduction of Genius- R Rother- 2002
[2] Leni Riefenstahl: Seduction of Genius- R Rother- 2002
[3] Leni Riefenstahl: A Life- J Trimborn- 2002
[4] Leni Riefenstahl: A Life- J Trimborn- 2002
[5] The Big Screen- D Thompson- 2012
[6] Hollywood and Hitler: 1933-1939- T Doherty- 2013
[7] T Doherty- Hollywood and Hitler: 1933-1939- 2013
[8] Leni Riefenstahl- The Daily Telegraph- 2002
[9] Leni Riefenstahl: Seduction of Genius- R Rother- 2002
[10] www.theguardian.com/film
[11] Leni Riefenstahl: Seduction of Genius- R Rother- 2002
[12] www.mtv.com/news/.../rammsteins-nazi-tainted-video-raises
[13] British Film Institute Film Classics- Buscombe, White- 2002
[14] http://www.learntoquestion.com/class/discussion/
[15] The Big Screen- D Thompson- 2012
[16] Hollywood and Hitler: 1933-1939- T Doherty- 2013
[17] Leni Riefenstahl: Seduction of Genius- R Rother- 2002
[18] www.telegraph.co.uk
[19] Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television: Leni Riefenstahl’s Gypsy Question- S Tegel- 2003
[20] Cinema Journal: A Mountain of a Ship: Locating the "Bergfilm" in James Cameron's "Titanic"- R Von Dassanowsky- 2001